Management Development means development of people in managerial cadre, so that they can excel in their present performance and future performance as well.
So, it is a process to improve knowledge, skill, abilities and attitudes of managers/ executives for better performance of the job.
Management development programme is designed looking to the objectives/ strategy of the company and necessary measures are taken to impart knowledge, to improve skill, abilities and to change attitudes of the executives.
In management development programmes, much more emphasis is given towards enhancement/development of such knowledge, skill, abilities, attitudes of managers which help to excel in future performance.
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Learn about:-
1. Introduction to Management Development 2. Meaning of Management Development 3. Definitions 4. Evolution 5. Concept 6. Nature 7. Objectives
8. Principles 9. Characteristics 10. Purpose 11. Need 12. Process 13. Off-The-Job Method 14. Techniques 15. Management Training and Development in India.
Management Development: Meaning, Definitions, Concept, Objectives, Need, Process, Programme, Techniques and Other Details
Contents:
- Introduction to Management Development
- Meaning of Management Development
- Definitions of Management Development
- Evolution of Management Development
- Concept of Management Development
- Nature of Management Development
- Objectives of Management Development
- Principles of Management Development
- Characteristics of Management Development
- Purpose of Management Development
- Need of Management Development
- Process of Management Development
- Off-The-Job Method of Management Development
- Techniques of Management Development
- Management Training and Development in India of Management Development
Management Development – Introduction
Management or executive development is a long-term educational future-oriented process. Managers are the indispensable resources, the priceless assets of an organization. They generate creative ideas, translate them into concrete action plans and produce results. The outcomes of managerial actions are going to be deep, profound and decisive.
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To get ahead in the race especially in a complex, dynamic and ever-changing world, managers need to develop their capabilities that go beyond those required by the current jobs. The managers have to deal not only with the staff but also with others outside his own group and has a decided influence on the organization.
The major and more elusive task of management development is to mould and fashion the behaviour component into a virile and unmixed weapon of enterprise achievement. The secret of effective management lies in vitality, a conceptual attitude of mind concerned with profitable results matched by determination and integrity in management and managers.
Management development activities attempt to instill sound reasoning processes to enhance one’s ability to understand and interpret knowledge — rather than imparting a body of serial facts or teaching a specific set of motor skills. Development therefore focuses more on the employee’s personal growth.
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Successful managers have analytical, human, conceptual and specialised skills and qualities. They are able to think and understand. Training parse cannot overcome a manager’s or potential manager’s inability to understand cause and affect relationship, to synthesis from experience to visualise relationships or to think logically.
Manager’s needs good listening skills, interviewing competency and the ability to read, analyse and classify types of employee behaviour. The methods for developing executives that we will consider are educational and are intended to foster the manager’s analytical and conceptual abilities.
Development is a related process that not only covers those activities that improve performance of jobs, but also those activities that lead to growth of the personality; help individuals to progress towards maturity and actualization of their potentials so that they become good employees as well as better human beings.
In organizational terms, development plans are intended to prepare persons to gain promotion and hold greater responsibility. Managerial development ensures that as and when the demand for managers arises, suitably qualified persons are ready to fill vacancies. Managerial development consists of all means by which executives learn to improve their performance.
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It is designed to improve the effectiveness of managers in their present jobs and to prepare them for higher jobs in future. Managerial development aims at helping the managers to realise their full potential.
Management development is a way of improving the culture of the organization so that it could be geared to excellence. “People move organizations — not machines”.
According to Edwin Flippo, “No organization has a choice of whether to develop employees or not; the only choice is that of method”. The need for management development is well accepted in the present business, which is fast changing due to technological and social developments.
Management Development – Meaning and Objectives
Management Development means development of people in managerial cadre, so that they can excel in their present performance and future performance as well. So, it is a process to improve knowledge, skill, abilities and attitudes of managers/ executives for better performance of the job.
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Management development programme is designed looking to the objectives/ strategy of the company and necessary measures are taken to impart knowledge, to improve skill, abilities and to change attitudes of the executives. In management development programmes, much more emphasis is given towards enhancement/development of such knowledge, skill, abilities, attitudes of managers which help to excel in future performance.
So, management development is basically future-need oriented educational programmes for managers to develop them in all perspectives so that they can competently and effectively confront challenges and achieve organizational goals for survival, growth and development.
However, the details of objectives of management development programmes are given, herein below:
(i) Identifying potential executives and developing them – Development programme helps the company to identify the executives who are potential and performers. Potential managers are given special care to improve their skill, ability and knowledge through participation in tailor-made training programmes.
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(ii) Enhancing knowledge, skill, ability for performance of present job – For performing present job officers need to increase their knowledge, level of skill, ability. Management development programme is organized looking to needs of such officers/ managers of the company.
(iii) To create a dynamic management pool – In the changing scenario, organization needs to have dynamic management force so that organization can face challenges, and it is possible if, suitable development programme is organized for the managers.
(iv) To increase proacting capabilities of managers – Management development programme enhances visionary and strategic skills of the managers that help to develop their proacting capabilities.
(v) To develop conceptual skill of higher executives – Higher executives should have thorough knowledge, idea regarding the organization, its activities, relationship with functional units. All such skill which is termed as conceptual skill needs for effective functioning of organizational work. Management improvement programme helps to increase conceptual skill of higher management.
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(vi) To improve human relations skill of managers – Human relations skill is needed for all cadres of management and through development programme such skill of managers is promoted.
(vii) To prepare managers to act as change agents – In today’s competitive age every organization needs to introduce change in device, production method, technique, equipment etc. to confront challenges, and all this is possible if the managers can act as change agents. Specific management development programme may bring a total change in the mindset of managers.
(viii) To keep the organizational activities running through provision of replacement – Organizational activities may be affected if suitable replacements are not provided in vacant positions of higher executives. Management development programme, as a measure of succession planning prepares the middle-level executive to occupy the vacant higher positions.
(ix) To identify individual learning needs and to meet them – Learning needs of managers vary from person to person. Hence, tailor-made individual programme, is required to be designed and imparted for growth, development of the individual executive.
(x) To keep the morale level of executives high – A lot of developmental programmes bring a change in the attitudes of management personnel that tend to increase the level of morale of such managers.
(xi) To encourage management personnel to prepare and implement personal development plans – Management development programme encourages potential managers to prepare personal development plans to cope with changing situations.
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(xii) To increase problem solving skill, skill to study situational and analytical skill of managers – Management development programmes increase skill of management people to solve problems, to analyse critical events and to study different situations of organization.
Management Development – Definitions by Some Eminent Thinkers like G.R.Terry, P.N.Singh, Flippo and S. B. Budhiraja
According to G.R.Terry, “Management development should produce change in behaviour which is more in keeping with the organizational goals than the previous behaviour. The change frequently consists of a number of small steps resulting from training but the cumulative effect is considerable. It is also basic that a terminal behaviour is identified before the development efforts start.”
According to P.N. Singh, “Management development is an activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers, provide a supply of managers to meet the need of organizations in future and extend the understanding of the management activity by drawing from the following three resource areas- (a) Knowledge, (b) Experience, and (c) Trainee himself”.
“Executive or management development is the planned, systematic and continuous process of learning and growth by which managers develop their conceptual and analytical ability to manage. It is the result of not only participation in formal courses of instruction but also of actual job experience. It is primarily concerned with improving the performance of the managers by giving them stimulating opportunities for growth and development.”
According to Flippo, “Management development includes the process by which managers and executives acquire not only skills and competency in their present jobs but also capabilities for future managerial tasks of increasing difficulty and scope.”
In words of S. B. Budhiraja, former director of Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), “Any activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers and to provide for a planned growth of managers to meet future organisational requirements is called management development.”
Thus, executive development can be said to be a learning process of executives or managers through which they gain knowledge, skills and they grow. Through development executives can develop their mental abilities & inherent qualities and they get prepared to handle more challenging jobs involving higher degree of responsibility. The effect of development can be seen in changed behaviour and attitude of executives.
Management development or executive development is a systematic process of growth and development by which the managers develop their abilities to manage. It is the result of, not only participation in formal courses of instruction, but also of actual job experience. It is concerned with improving the performance of the managers by giving them opportunities for growth and development.
It is an effort to provide employees with the abilities that the organization will need in the future. Management or executive development is the long-term educational process that utilises a methodical and organised procedure that imparts conceptual and theoretical knowledge to managers.
Management Development – The Context
Context as a complex network of variables with which managers interact and they are able to construct a social reality with sense and meaning.
Some of the important contextual variables are:
(a) The individual
(b) The management team
(c) Environment factors, and
(d) The organisation.
The complex and ambiguous nature of management development:
Research has revealed the complex nature of management development.
Some issues that have created difficulties are:
i. Clarifying what is management development.
ii. Defining business needs and requirements.
iii. What do managers want from developers?
iv. Evolving and changing individual development needs.
v. The need for different managerial styles.
vi. Selecting the most appropriate method of development
vii. Measuring and evaluating the benefits. Organising and Implementing Management Development Programmes
Now the organisation considers the best way to organise and implement the development programme. Why programmes have a tendency to become piecemeal and fragmented, why line managers often leave it to personnel and training specialists to organise. Certain decisions have to be made within the context of the organisation’s strategic plans.
In recently, organisations are adopting and promoting a tripartite view where responsibility is shared between the personnel specialist, the boss and the individual. Planning and implementation is most essential for management development.
Management Development – Evolution
Efficient and loyal workers were promoted to the supervisory or management positions and it was soon realised that “Superior workers do not necessarily make superior managers. This realisation necessitated the need for planned programmes for the selection, training and development of managerial personnel.”
Formal management development programmes started emerging in the late 1940s and 1950s. Several forces have operated to cause the expansion of management development activities.
To name only a few-
1. Shift from owner managed to professionally managed enterprises.
2. Management has been recognised as a distinct kind of occupation consisting of acquired skills and a unified body of knowledge.
Management Development – Concept
Management development consists of all activities by which executives learn to improve their behaviour and performance. It is designed to improve the effectiveness of managers in their present jobs and to prepare them for higher jobs in future. “Management development is the process by which managers acquire not only skills and competencies in their present jobs but also capabilities for future managerial tasks of increasing difficulty and scope.”
Thus, development denotes planned efforts to improve current and future performance of the organisation.
Management or executive development is an educational process utilising a systematic and organised procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purposes.
Management development is a planned, systematic and continuous process of learning and growth designed to induce behavioural change in individuals by cultivating their mental abilities and inherent qualities through the acquisition, understanding and use of new knowledge, insights and skills as they are needed for effective management.
This learning process involves the implication that there will be changed behaviour on the part of the individual getting adequate training and education.
Executive or management development programs seek overall development of the executives and not only the skills necessary to do their current jobs efficiently. The job of executive is a very challenging one. So the executive development programs should be more concerned with the conceptual-and human skills of the executives.
A comprehensive development program uses various learning aids to increase the knowledge, decision-making ability, skill in dealing with people and maturity of the managers.
Management Development – Nature: Learning Process, Behavioural Change, Self-Development, Conceptual and Human Skills and Planned Process
1. Learning process- Development is a learning process. Through this process executives learn to use their capabilities for organisational goals and they learn to handle future managerial tasks of increasing difficulty.
2. Behavioural change- Management development is a learning process which is designed to change the behaviour, attitude of executives towards the job and organisation.
3. Self-development- Personality of executives improves by development. They become more capable and their value also increases.
4. Continuous process- Development is not a onetime process; it is a continuous process which goes on forever. It is a long term process.
5. Conceptual and human skills- There are three kinds of skills conceptual, human and technical. In executive development, conceptual and human skills are emphasised.
6. Planned process- Development is a planned process. It does not happen by chance.
Management Development – 5 Important Objectives
i. To bring the current performance of the managerial personnel up to the highest attainable levels and to develop whatever potential they may have for growing into positions of higher responsibilities.
ii. To ensure availability of qualified managerial manpower as required to meet the current and future needs.
iii. To ensure managerial capabilities.
iv. To aid in encouraging and achieving self-development and self-confidence.
v. To provide an opportunity for managers to update their knowledge and skill.
The objectives of management development may vary with the levels of management in the organization. Thus, the objectives for the top management could be to cause an improvement in the thought processes and analytical ability, broaden the outlook, understand the economic, technical, and institutional forces, and acquire knowledge of human relations.
For middle level management, it could be establishing a clear picture of the functional responsibilities, awareness of the management problems, knowledge of motivation and human relations, and developing leadership. At the executive level, it could be knowledge of business functions and operations, improving methods and procedures, activities performed in the organization, human relations, and ability to analyse one’s own function and relate with other functions in the organization.
Management Development – 5 Main Principles of Management Development Programmes
The management development programme should be based on the following principles:
(i) The principle of individual difference should be considered while designing the training programme.
(ii) Provision of incentive to motivate the trainee.
(iii) Provision of applying the content of the training on the job.
(iv) Active participation of the trainer and trainee in the training and development programme.
(v) Feedback about the trainee’s progress in the training and development programme should be shared with him/her so that steps can be taken to remove the weaknesses.
Thus, management or executive development includes all those activities and programmes that have substantial influence on changing the capacity of the individual to perform his/her present assignment better and, in so doing, is likely to increase his/her potential for future management assignments.
Management development is a continuous process of training and growth which brings behavioural changes among managers. It should not be treated as a one shot affair. Managers develop themselves by participating in formal training courses organized by the organization and also through their actual job experiences in the organization. The organization acts as a facilitator for development but what is more important is the urge of the employee to develop himself. Thus, self-development is an important principle of the management development.
Management Development – 5 Main Characteristics
The characteristics of management or executive development are as follows:
(i) Management development is an organised process of learning rather than a haphazard or trial and error approach.
(ii) Management development is a long-term process as managerial skills cannot be developed overnight.
(iii) Management development is an ongoing exercise rather than an ‘oneshot’ affair. It continues throughout an executive’s professional career because there is no end to learning.
(iv) Management development aims at preparing managers for better performance and helping them to realise their full potential.
(v) Management development is guided self-development. An organisation can provide opportunities for development to its present and potential managers. But the urge for learning has to come from the executive himself. Executive development is possible only when the individual has the desire to learn and puts into practice what he learns.
Management Development – Purpose
In general, purpose of management development is to improve the efficiency of executives and preparing them to handle future responsibilities in organisation by developing their knowledge, skills and attitude.
Following are the purposes of management development:
1. To improve the performance of managers in their respective fields such as marketing, production, finance, personnel, etc.
2. To make managers efficient in using managerial techniques like work study, inventory control, operational research, quality control, etc.
3. To encourage innovation and creativity to improve methods and procedures.
4. To understand the working of whole organisation (of all departments).
5. To develop problem solving abilities.
6. To develop decision making skills.
7. To utilise the full potential of executives in present and in future.
8. To develop a sense of responsibility in executives.
9. To provide knowledge regarding human relations.
10. Enhancing managerial skills and making executives able to handle higher level responsibilities in future.
11. To enable executives handle technological changes.
12. To prepare executives for fighting competition.
13. To develop skills for handling industrial disputes.
Management Development – Need of Executive Development in Today’s Organisation
Efficient organisations generally believe in promoting people from within the organisation as this is a highly motivational factor for their employees. Moreover these employees are already familiar with the company policies and infrastructure, so they take less time to get adjusted to the higher-level jobs.
But generally there is a shortage of trained managers. This shortage is felt particularly during the large-scale expansion of the organisation. Thus, it becomes essential for organisations to develop the talented employees and maintain an inventory of executive skills to meet the future demands.
The need for executive development in today’s organisations arises because of the following factors:
1. The first and the foremost essential requisites is that today’s workforce is educated and socially aware. They ask for their participation in management, better pay, better career opportunities, and better working conditions. In order to satisfy them and to motivate them to contribute to their best in the organisation it is essential to develop their skills through executive development programs.
2. Frequent labour-management conflicts need trained managers to maintain industrial peace in the enterprise.
3. Management development programs are essential to enable the organisation to have the availability of required number of managers with the required skills to meet the present and anticipated needs of the organisation.
4. In the face of rapid changes taking place in the technology with more advanced, high-tech, automatic machines and equipments being introduced, it becomes essential for the employees to have working knowledge of these technological developments.
5. Change in the socio-cultural environment is taking place at a fast speed. The managers must have up-to-date knowledge of these changes to understand the behaviour of people in proper perspective.
6. In the light of intensive competition, growing consumer consciousness, it is becoming difficult for the organisations to attract consumers. To understand such an environment and deliver maximum satisfaction to consumers, executive development programs can be of great help.
7. Recognition of social responsibility of business managers has increased the need for executive development.
8. Management development is an ongoing exercise rather than a ‘one-shot’ affair. It continues throughout an executive’s professional career because there is no end to learning.
9. It can also be used to impart knowledge to the managerial personnel in the latest management concepts, principles, techniques and practices.
Finally, management development programs can provide opportunities to employees to fulfill their career aspirations and can ensure that the managerial resources of the organisation are utilised optimally.
Management Development – 6 Inter-Related Steps Involved in MD Process: Organisational Planning, Assessment of Present Management Talent and a Few Others
Management development programme must be conducted effectively. In this process, many steps are to be taken by the management.
The following inter-related steps are involved in MD process:
Step # 1. Organisational Planning:
This step is concerned with ascertaining development needs that calls for organisational planning and forecast of its needs for present and future growth. This is generally based upon a comprehensive programme of job description, job specification and job analysis.
The management should ascertain well in advance the future course of organisational development, the kind of executives needed and kind of education, experience, training, special knowledge, skill, personal traits, etc., required for each work. Most companies train their own executives except when they experience a critical shortage of specialised high level talent. In the later case, executives are hired from outside.
Step # 2. Assessment of Present Management Talent:
It is made with a view to determine qualitatively the type of personnel that is available within an organisation itself. The performance of a management individual is compared with the standard expected of him. His personal traits are also analyzed so that a value judgement may be made of his potential for advancement.
Step # 3. Preparation of Management Manpower Inventory:
It is, prepared for the purpose of getting complete information about each management individual’s biodata and educational qualifications, the result of tests and performance appraisal. The information is generally maintained on cards, one for each individual. It may also be maintained on replacement tables or charts. From these, it can be known that several capable executives are available for training for higher positions.
Step # 4. MD Programme Planning:
It is undertaken to meet the needs of different individuals keeping in view the differences in their attitudes and behaviour and in their physical, intellectual and emotional qualities. The weak and strong points of an individual are known from his performance appraisal reports and on the basis of these tailor-made programmes are framed and launched. Such programmes give due attention to the interests and goals of the subordinates as well as the training and development opportunities which exist within an organisation.
Step # 5. Implementation of Development Programme:
This job is done by the personnel department. A comprehensive and well-conceived programme is generally prepared containing concentrated brief courses. Such courses may be in the field of human relations, time and motion study, creative thinking, memory training, decision making, leadership courses and courses in profession and the time and the cost involved.
Step # 6. Evaluation of Development Programme:
The evaluation of training has been defined by Hamblin as – “Any attempt to obtain information on the effects of training programme and to assess the value of training in the light of that information”. According to him, the objectives of evaluation training are – assessing the reactions of trainees, job behaviour, improvement in performance, contribution to organisational objectives, etc. The means of evaluating development programmes may include – observation ratings, surveys, interviews, etc.
If these steps are followed meticulously, the objective of MD programme will be accomplished effectively. The managers and organisation both would be benefitted by management development programme.
Management Development – 12 More Popular Off-The-Job Methods: Case Study, Incident Method, Role Playing, In-Basket Method, Simulations and a Few Others
There is a wealth of management development techniques that managers can adopt in off-the-job.
The more popular ones are:
Method # 1. Case Study:
Case study method is an excellent medium for developing analytical skills. It was started by Harvard Business School. This method is increasingly being used by many other prestigious and not so prestigious management institutes in India.
Case is “a written description of an actual situation”, which provokes in the reader the need to decide what is going on, what the situation really is or what the problems are and what can and should be done. A case is an objective description of a “real life” business situation in which executives is required to take action and is responsible for results.
In this method, an actual business situation is described in writing, in a comprehensive manner. The trainees are asked to appraise and analyse the problem situation and suggest solutions. The actual decision taken in the subject case is known only to the executive and is disclosed only at the end of session when it is compared with the various solutions offered by the group.
The case method of development utilizes actual case example collected from various organizations for diagnostic purposes. The trainee must- (1) identify the major and minor problems in the case; (2) filter out the significant facts from the insignificant; (3) analyze the issues and use logic to fill in the gaps in the facts; (4) arrive at some means for solving the identifiable problem.
Cases in personnel management are after each major section in the text. In ensuring group discussion, concerning the case, the trainee will usually see that other candidates differ from himself or herself about what is important and what action should be undertaken.
Method # 2. Incident Method:
This method was developed by Paul and Faith Pigors. The central aim of this method is to stimulate self-development in a blend of understanding that is essential for productive interaction.
This blend combines intellectual ability (power to think clearly incisively and reasonably about specific facts and also about abstractions); practical judgement (capacity to modify conclusions arrived at intellectually, so that they meet the test of common sense); and social awareness (being able to appreciate the force of other people’s feelings and willing to adjust or implement a decision so that it can be more acceptable to persons who are affected by it.
Group work of each of these cases begins when a group meets. Each member working along for a couple of minutes, studies a written incident. He asks himself, what seems to be going on this incident? What lead can I find here toward facts or the case and issues that stirred people up?
Appended to each incident is an invitation to make short-term decisions in the role of person who had to cope with an incident when it actually happened. A slight variation in this method may be in the form of incident method. In this method, trainee is given certain incidents and his reactions are noted down.
Some trainees may even play surprise roles which interrupt the manager and give him two or more simultaneous problems more like real on-the-job pressures. Through the feedback of his behaviours, the trainee comes to know his behavioural pattern and tries to overcome the one which is not productive or functional. Thus, he can learn techniques of giving priorities to various problems faced by him.
Under this method, group members address questions to the discussion leader. The general trend of questioning is to find out about what, when, and how of the situation in which an incident developed, and who was present there at the time. Clues are also tracked down if they seem to offer reliable insight into the why of behaviour. Asking the collection of data, it is necessary to isolate the most important items for decision making.
Method # 3. Role Playing:
Role playing, as a method of learning was introduced by Moreno, a Vatican psychiatrist. He introduced the terms ‘role playing’, ‘role rehearsal’, ‘psychodrama’ and a variety of specialized terms, with emphasis on learning human relations through insight into one’s own behaviour and its impact on others.
Role playing is a simulation in which the trainee is asked to play a part in a problem situation requiring integration with others. Basic mental sets are stated for all participants, but no dialogue is provided. For example, a supervisor, on the advice of a motion and time study engineer, has decided to change the work methods of subordinates.
Role playing as a method of learning involves human interaction in imaginary situation and leadership learning. In drama, and play, actors play various roles. While playing these roles, they assume themselves as the persons whose role they play. Similar is the case in role playing training.
Role playing technique is used in groups where various individuals are given the roles of different managers who are required to solve a problem or to arrive at a decision. Thus, it is spontaneous acting in a situation involving two or more persons under training situation. Dialogues grow spontaneously as the role playing proceeds. At the end of the role playing sessions, there is a critique session in which trainees are given feedback about their role playing.
Role playing is close to a laboratory situation in dealing with people in job situations. Playback of tape, if recorded, provides opportunities for the trainee to examine his or her performance with the additional insight of participants and experienced observers. Role playing helps the trainees to develop better perspectives in performing their jobs, because they may see the jobs from different angles. It also develops sensitivity among trainees which is quite helpful in maintaining better human relations.
Method # 4. In-Basket Method:
In-basket is a popularly used device in identifying executive potential in executive assessment centres. In this method, each item of the trainees is given a file of correspondence bearing on a functional area of management. Each individual studies the file and makes his own recommendations on the situations.
If further information is required by him, it is supplied by the members of the team. They are provided with an in-basket of assorted memoranda, requests, and data pertaining to the firm. The trainee must be sense out of his mass of paperwork and prepare memos, make notes and delegate tasks within a limited time period.
The observations of each individual member are compared and conclusions on different functional areas reached and these are put down in the form of a report. For this purpose, such teaching methods as the incident process, role playing, syndicate method, and conference method are used.
Method # 5. Business or Management Game:
Business games are classroom simulation exercises in which teams of individuals compete against one another or against an environment in order to achieve a given objective. The game is close representation of real life conditions. Under these, an atmosphere is created in which the participants play a dynamic role and enrich their skills through involvement and simulated experience.
Most business games are expressed in the form of mathematical model controlled and manipulated by an electric computer; while others can be played manually. In the former case, quicker feedback is available; clerical work is avoided and time is controlled. Some games are interacting types of games, while others are non-interacting in types.
The interacting types of games are like a game of tennis; the decision of one team influence or affect the performance of the other teams. In the non-interacting types of games, each team is independent and do not affect others. A problem is provided to them along with all the necessary information and constraints.
Team of trainees are formed to meet, discuss and arrive at a decisions concerning such subjects as production amounts, research and development, inventories, sales and a myriad of other activities for a simulated films. Games can be relatively, simple, permitting rapid decision making to be effected, or extremely complicated, entailing long and detailed analysis of trends in cost, inventories and sales.
Usually, management games consist of several teams which represents competing companies. Each team consists of two to six members. Team take decisions regarding production, prices, research expenditure, marketing, advertising, and attempt to maximize hypothetical profits in this simulated environment.
The decisions of a team are fed into a computer which has been programmed according to a particular model or of the market. The game continues for six to twelve periods. At the end of that period, the final results are worked out by each team and compared with those of others.
Business games are intended to teach trainees how to take management decisions in an integrated manner. The participants learn by analyzing problems and by making trial-and-error decisions. Such games illustrate the existence of various group processes, including communication, the resolution of conflicts, the emergence of leadership and the development of ties of friendship.
The processing of information is supposed to be guided by knowledge of the goals and policies of the organisation. Even if mistake is made in the game, the trainee can learn a lot from his mistake. This avoids possible mistakes while taking decisions for his company. This method develops capacity to take rational decisions by managers.
Method # 6. Sensitivity, Laboratory, or T-Group Training:
This becomes quite popular during 1950s. Sensitivity training also known as laboratory or T-groups with T-standing for training evolved from the group dynamics concept of Kurt Lewin, and the first sensitivity training session was held in 1946 in State Teachers College, New Britain, USA.
Since then, it spread to numerous training centres in USA and other countries. Sensitivity training is a small group interaction processing the unstructured form which requires people to become sensitive to others’ feelings in order to develop reasonable group activity.
It is known by several names such as ‘T-group training’, ‘action training’, ‘group dynamics’, ‘confrontation groups’, ‘awareness expertises’, ‘sensitivity retreats’, ‘human capacity movement’, ‘encounter sessions’ and so forth.
It involves face-to-face learning about ongoing behaviour within a small group that needs continually for periods as long as one to two weeks. According to Chris Argyris, “sensitivity training is a group experience, designed to provide maximum possible opportunity for the individuals to expose their behaviour, give and receive feedback, experiment with new behaviour and develop awareness of self and of others”.
Specific result sought includes increased ability to emphasis with others, improved listening skills, greater openness, increased tolerance for individual differences, understanding group process and improved conflict resolution skills.
Method # 7. Simulations:
It is a training technique which indicates the duplication of organizational situations in a learning environment. It is a mock-up of a real thing. This technique has been used for developing technical and interpersonal skills.
In simulation, the following procedure is adopted:
1. Essential characteristics of a real life organisation or activity are abstracted and presented as a case — not to be studied and analysed as in the usual case study method but to be experienced by the trainee as a realistic, life like circumstances.
2. Trainees are asked to assume various roles in the circumstances and to solve the problem facing them. They are asked to be themselves, not to act.
3. A simulation often involves a telescope of compressing of time events, a single hour may be equated with a month or a quarter or a year in real life and many events are experienced in a relatively brief period of time.
4. Simulated decisions games and role playing exercises put individuals in the role of acting out managerial problems. Games which are frequently played on an electronic computer that has been programmed for the particular game, provide opportunities for individuals to make decisions and to consider the implications of a decision on other segments of the organization, with no adverse effect should the decision be a poor one.
5. Trainees are required to make decisions that have a real effect in the simulation and about which they receive rapid feedback. The simulation is followed by a critique of what went on during exercise.
For example, activities of an organisation may be simulated and the trainee may be asked to make a decision in support of those activities. The results of those decisions are reported back to the trainee with an explanation. The report illustrates what would-have happened if that decision was taken. The trainee teams from this feedback and improves his subsequent simulation.
The advantages to simulations are the opportunities to attempt to create an environment, similar to real situations the managers incur, without high costs involved should the action prove undesirable. The disadvantages are that it is difficult to duplicate the pressure and realities of actual decision making on the jobs and individuals often act differently in real life situations when they do in acting out a simulated exercise.
Method # 8. Grid Training:
The managerial grid is an organisational development technique developed by Robert R. Bloke and Jane S. Mouton. The grid represents several possible leadership styles. Each style represents a different combination of two basic orientations concern for people (1.9) and concern for production (9.1)
The management training programme is built around this managerial grid. It aims at developing open confrontation of organisational problems and high people high production (9.9) leaders.
Such programmes last for three to five years and usually involve the following steps:
1. Phase-1 involves a weekend conference, where trainees are taught the fundamental of grid- training,
2. Phase-2 comprises the discussion, analysis arid solution of the units’ problems and practices by the management and the subordinates.
3. Phase-3 involves meeting with various groups with the aim of working out companywide problems and setting some development targets for the company as a whole,
4. Phase-4 involves outlining specific procedures for accomplishing the company’s development targets.
5. Phase-5 includes evaluation of the units’ accomplishments and beginning work on any remaining or new problems.
Managerial grid with concern for people is shown on the vertical scale and concern for output on the horizontal. A score of 1 indicates trainee low concern and score 9 indicates high concern. Such assessments are then followed by thorough group discussion of the meaning of the measured location of each trainee. Usually with the admonition that the group should move to a more balanced position of equal concern for both people and productivity.
Method # 9. Conferences:
The conference method is another commonly used method of executive development. Topics such as human relations, safety education, customer relations, sales training, are often discussed, debated, spoken about at conference specially organised and designed for the purpose.
A conference is a meeting of people to discuss a subject of common interest, problems, and doubts. The conference is structured around a small group meeting, wherein a leader helps the group identify and define a problem, guides the discussion along desired lines and summarises the views that represents the consensus of the group in dealing with the problem.
The participants exchange notes, opinions, and ideas on the subject in a systematic, planned way. A conference may be divided into small groups for focused discussions. Participants are expected to air their opinions and thoughts freely.
In order to ensure its success- (i) participants are expected to come prepared for the conference, (ii) the conference leader should conduct the sessions according to a plan, giving enough room for healthy interchange of different viewpoints, (iii) the discussion should proceed along desired lines, and (iv) the size of the groups should not be too large. When big organizations use this method, the trainer uses audio visual aids such as black board, mock ups, and slides.
Method # 10. Lecture:
In this method, the instructor organizes the material and gives it to trainees in the form of talk. Lectures are formal talk on a topic by an experienced and knowledgeable person. The presentation is generally supported by discussions, case studies, audio-visual aids and films shows.
It is a simple and inexpensive way of imparting knowledge on a topic of special importance to a large audience. There could be a speedy interchange of ideas on a specific topic. The method may often degenerate into a kind of one-way traffic where the presenter tries to get ahead without paying attention to the reactions of the audience.
If the lecture is not interesting enough, the audience may not participate and offer any feedback. The listeners play a largely non-participatory role. They may ask questions but they never get the feel of what is being talked about. Moreover, participants do not share each other’s experiences and hence the learning is confined to what the presenter has to say.
An advantage of lecture method is that, it is direct and can be used for a large group of trainees.
The method could be used effectively if the following things are to be kept in mind:
1. The presentation should be interesting, lively and leave enough room for healthy discussions.
2. The presenter must possess excellent communication and interpersonal skills. Adequate presentation must precede the actual presentation.
3. To enrich the presentation, audio-visual aids, examples, real life incidents, cases, books and periodicals should be used freely, encouraging the audience to participate freely. Better to set time limits to the lecture, since listeners tends to switch off completely beyond a point.
Method # 11. Transactional Analysis:
When people interact with others, there is a transaction for which one person responses to another. The study of these social transactions between people is called transactional analysis (TA). It was popularized by Berne’s book, Games People Play (1964) and Harris’ book, I Am Ok. You Are Ok (1976).
According to Berne, two people interact with each other from one of the three psychological positions known as ego states. These three states are called parent, adult and child. People, whose parent ego state is in control, may be protective, controlling, nurturing, critical, and instructive.
They may dogmatically refer to the policies and standards. The parent state is made up of one’s attitudes and behaviour incorporated from external sources. It is an ego state of authority and superiority. A person acting in a parent state is usually dominant, scolding and otherwise authoritative.
The parent tends to be judgemental, condescending and punishing with frequent use of such words as “should”, “ought”, and “mustn’t”. The adult ego state will appear as calculative, factual and emotional behaviour. It tries to upgrade decisions by seeking facts, processing data, estimating probabilities and holding factual decisions.
The adult state is objective and rational. It deals with reality, and objectively gathers information and open mind. Since it reasons and is reasonable, its actions are almost computer like — making decisions, give opinion. The child ego state reflects the emotions developed in response to childhood experiences.
It may be spontaneous, dependent, creative, or rebellious. Like a child, this ego states desires approval from others and prefers immediate rewards. The child contains all the impulses that are natural to an infant. Acting in this state, the person can be obedient or manipulative, charming, at one moment and repulsive the next. Whereas the parent acts as he or she was taught, the child is emotional and acts according to how he or she feels at the moment.
In TA theory, the parent and child ego states feel and react directly while the adult state think or process transactional data logically before acting. In most situations, the ideal interaction is an adult stimulus, followed by an adult response. TA is based on intuitive feel rather than on hard evidence, the TA experience may help managers understand others better and assist them in altering their responses so as to produce more effective results. The objective of TA is to provide better understanding of how people relate to one another, so that they may develop improved communication and human relations.
Method # 12. Management Institutions:
Along with the universities and colleges, there are management training institutions such as NITIE, Bombay Management Association, and Productivity Councils and so on. These institutes run special training courses for graduates interested in management education and also orientation programmes for existing managers from public and private sector enterprises.
Companies can depute their managers for short orientation courses and update the knowledge and information of their managers in specific areas. Even seminars, workshops and conferences are arranged for the training of managers by various associations such as chambers of commerce and export promotion councils.
Mumbai University has its Bajaj Institute of Management for various management development courses. Colleges affiliated to the Universities also conduct DBM, MBA and other management development programmes for the executives from business sector. Candidates working at managerial levels in companies are normally selected for such training programmes.
Various methods of management development have been discussed above. However, it is difficult to suggest which of the training method will prove better, for the success of each method largely depend on-
(a) How it is employed;
(b) The instructor’s ability and personality;
(c) The trainee’s maturity, background and willingness to learn; and
(d) Company atmosphere and the extent to which there is an opportunity and encouragement to the trainee to apply to the job what he learnt in the class or the programme.
It may only be said that some methods may suit some training objective or group of participants better than others, but the acceptance and adoption of one or other of these methods will have to be done with caution and after careful thinking.
Management Development – 7 Techniques: Planned Progression, Job Rotation, Creation of ‘Assistant to’ Position, Temporary Promotion and a Few Others
The techniques lay emphasis not on the skill but on the capacity of handling complex situations, dealing with tough-minded employees, and solving managerial problems.
The techniques that are generally used are as follows:
i. Planned progression – It is a technique that gives managers an idea of their career path. From this idea, they develop understanding about the career anchors. A lower level manager can move up along the organizational hierarchy. Thus, the path of promotion is blue printed.
ii. Job rotation – Rotation is ensured in non-supervisory roles through work situations and changing assignments; and among managerial training positions by unspecified managerial positions.
iii. Creation of ‘assistant to’ position – The junior colleague can follow the activities of the senior. In turn, the senior colleague discharges teacher-like roles while judging the decision-making ability and leadership potential.
iv. Temporary promotion – The performance is tested at the elevated position.
v. Making member of junior boards of management – The behavioural dispositions of the junior managers are observed, and their views/decisions are very often implemented. This is done to instill a sense of responsibility.
vi. Coaching and counselling – These are done to transform the new subordinate, and to make him oriented in his job in order to accomplish better. Coaching is provided for developing the role; and counselling for managing and coping stress.
vii. Syndicate – Teams of people with mature judgement and proven ability drawn from different functional areas exchange and share their experiences and ideas. Large numbers of new recruits are divided into groups of sizes of eight to 10 people in a group.
Management Development – Management Training and Development in India:
Human capital is of equal importance for industrial development as are the physical and financial resources. The Government of India has recognised this fact and is doing its best to develop the managerial talent in the country. Before independence, nothing was done for management training.
In India, most of the industries were managed by managing agents coming from foreign land, and Indians were not given such opportunities. Hence, there was practically no management development in India before independence. It was only after independence that the Indian government paid attention on this subject.
A committee was appointed in 1949 for educating in vocational management. It submitted its report in 1953. On its recommendations, All India Technical Education Society was established under the presidentship of Jehangir Gandhi. It had representatives of industry, trade, university, technical institutions, vocational institutes and the government. Its main work was to spread the management education in the country.
On the advice of the Estimates Committee of Lok Sabha, a group was sent to America under the leadership of Y. A. Fazalbhai in the year 1959. This nine-member management education team undertook two-months study tour there.
The members included representatives of seven leading Indian institutions where management training was being imparted, including the IIT Kharagpur, the University of Bombay (now University of Mumbai), the Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management, Calcutta (now Kolkata). The team visited 17 universities and 13 industrial organisations to study the techniques relating to management education in the USA.
The team also met over 202 leading personalities engaged in training and education in management techniques in the USA. Full-time degree courses in management, including a master’s degree, and an intensive management programme in close collaboration between industry and business and the universities were some of the important recommendations of the study team.
The industrial management courses have been started only by IIT Kharagpur. Up to 1960, there was a provision of courses in industrial psychology and industrial relations of one year’s duration leading to the MTech degree. Courses in industrial management were also proposed to be started at the remaining three institutes of technology at Bombay, Madras and Kanpur.
There is a provision of 20 seats at the Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute, Matunga, Bombay, for the postgraduate diploma in industrial management. The duration of the course is three years. The Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, has a provision for ME degree in industrial engineering and industrial administration.
Some short courses in management and in various subjects allied to management are being organised by a number of other institutions, organisations and universities. The universities of Agra, Aligarh, Ujjain, Rajasthan, Gorakhpur, Lucknow and so on provide certain courses in management of a limited nature.
Really speaking, such courses are meant only for familiarising the students of the faculty of commerce with the management studies. The University of Allahabad received a donation a few years back and the University of Bombay received a donation from the family of late Shri Jamuna Lai Bajaj for starting the courses in industrial management. Hence, management institutes have been established by these universities.
But the most important development in India in the field of training in industrial management has just crossed the planning stage. The first All India Institute of Management started functioning at Calcutta from September 1962.
The Ford Foundation provided a grant of $434,000 for the institute for a period of two years. This included provision for service of four experts from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and short-term consultants and also for training abroad of Indian faculty members.
The second IIM was established at Ahmedabad. Both the institutes are autonomous bodies. Boards of governors for them have been constituted. Thereafter, IIMs have been started at Bengaluru, followed by at Lucknow and many other places.
In India, at present, there are three kinds of management training facilities which are as follows:
1. Full-Time Management Courses:
Such type of management training is being imparted by many universities and institutions. The most popular name of such a course is MBA; its duration is of two years. Besides universities, there are certain all-India-level institutes and a good number of many other management institutes which provide management education.
2. Refresher and Short-Term Courses:
Such courses are organised for junior-level executives. These are organised by different institutions such as All India Institutes of Management, Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Bangalore and Lucknow; National Productivity Council; and various professional organisations which are as follows –
a. The Institute of Cost and Work Accountants
b. The Institute of Chartered Accountants
c. Institute of Personnel Management
d. Institute of Production Engineers
e. Textile Research Associations
f. All India Management Association.
3. TWI:
In the industry, practical training is imparted by various concerns in both public and private sectors such as DCM, Tata Enterprises, Bata Shoe Co. and Life Insurance Corporation. This system is based on mixed practical experience and training.
Among the companies which have developed management training programmes, Hindustan Lever, Tata, DCM, Atlas Cycles and many others deserve special mention. Tata has started Tata Staff College at Pune and Hindustan Lever has started Unilever Training Centre at Bombay.
But if looked from the needs standpoints, these provisions are not sufficient. Although correct estimate for needs are not available in India, still it is hoped that the country will need a large number of trained managers during the coming 20 years. Hence, it requires more efforts as these institutes cannot cope up the demand.
Although some universities have done an admirable work in this direction, it is also not enough. More sincere efforts, especially quality-wise, are required in this direction from all concerned. However, talent shortages are hindering leadership efforts of many organisations.