Everything you need to know about the elements of directing. The process of direction is concerned with the way an executive issues orders and instruction and alter wise indicates hew the work is to be done.
Thus, directing does not simply mean issuing orders and instructions but also includes guiding and inspiring people.
According to Haimann “Directing consists of the process and techniques utilized in issuing instructions and making certain that operations are carried on as originally planned”.
The elements of direction are:- 1. Supervision 2. Motivation 3. Leadership 4. Communication.
4 Important Elements of Directing: Supervision, Motivation, Leadership and Communication
Elements of Directing – The Four Crucial Elements: Supervision, Motivation, Leadership and Communication
Directing function of the management is the key to the survival and renewal of the world of business. Through its four major elements – supervision, motivation, leadership and communication, it creates the fusion of human mind and the machine. The most critical of all the challenges is it faces the challenge of survival amid competition and changing technologies.
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Through these four elements it expresses the concerns of cost-effectiveness, quality, leadership, customer satisfaction, product design and utility, adherence to government regulations and fulfillment of psycho-social needs of both the employees and the customers.
How crucial these elements are can be seen below:
Element # 1. Supervision:
Super + Vision means reading over or viewing the objects, inspect and control—making it an innovative experiment in restructuring the organisation as and when the need arises. At operative level this role of direction is assumed by an officer designated for the purpose like the superintendent, the overseer, the gang chief, etc. Through its many functions the quality of supervision has considerable influence in team spirit, cooperation, discipline, product design quality etc.
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Business organisations have certain features through which human and mechanical processes move. One such process, called scheduling meaning writing or preparing a list of work items to be completed according to a certain plan, is a basic and important function of a supervisor. There is a great deal of explicit reliance on this function of the supervisor to set the wheels of industry and business into motion.
The Supervisor also acts as a linking pin between the management and the operatives. He writes and prepares records, reports and also sends feedback information to various departments. Controlling and Motivation are his other important functions.
Element # 2. Motivation:
Motivation means an act of giving inducement or creating an urge to do a certain work. It is a behavioural intervention particularly ideological with regard to its economic implications. It arouses a desire to act in a certain way to accomplish certain goals. The process consists of three stages – felt need or motive; stimulus or producing a drive; and accomplishment of a task. At each level it changes or influences human behaviour. It is not only individualistic in form but can also be accomplished in respect of a group.
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Since it involves psycho-social aspects it is a continuous process. As an element of Direction, motivation is a primary instrument for obtaining and accomplishing the goals of the organisation.
As a problem solving strategy particularly with respect to the thought process and human behaviour, motivation can be applied in many conflict situations as well as a resource tool.
It creates the desire for action so necessary for accomplishment of goals; it helps in achieving better and efficient work standards by simple behaviour modification creating the will to work; it secures loyalty of the subordinates; it is a healthy and necessary tool to solve problems arising out of conflicts of mind; it is a lasting solution to human problems because it modifies the behaviour; it does not create lack of understanding and ensures stable relationships helping the organisation create a better image of itself.
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The methods of motivating are many and varied. Generally however incentives, counselling and employee involvement in decision making process, building team spirit and providing career building opportunities are better known methods of motivation. Money does not however always provide the incentive.
At higher levels its role in influencing human behaviour is limited. In such circumstances giving a kind of status helps. The incentives are also directly related to human needs of security, shelter, social status, esteem and a sense of fulfillment (self-actualisation).
The forms of incentives vary from monetary to non-monetary. A good opportunity comes from sourcing motivation for a small group who can make a greater contribution before trying out on a larger scale.
Element # 3. Leadership:
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In the world of business a ‘leader is one who has a will to win and stay ahead’. He has followers, customers, workforce, common sense and innovation. He knows the ways of remaining competitive and develops people continuously, because he knows that he derives his authority from the people around him.
From this definition following broad features of leadership arise – These are that the leader exercises his influences over others, the existence of followers suggests that he holds some kind of sway over other people, he possesses unity of interest with his customers and by developing people continuously implies that leadership is a continuing process like the team building itself.
Does a leader always make a good manager because we have considered leadership as an element of directing function of the management? The system demands that a leader need not be a manager but a manager must possess leadership qualities.
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A manager as a leader produces a great team. Managers who are also leaders are always on top of their jobs and their job knowledge is rated highly for which they are also respected in academic and social circles. The leader derives his strength from people because he inspires actions of others, guides them and secures the cooperation of employees and others for the benefit of the organisation.
The leader creates a confidence and an atmosphere conducive to the progress of the business as well as the progress of his subordinates or followers. In the organisational context the importance of leadership emerges differently in different contexts but as a boss he not only leads but also manages.
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What qualities should an effective leader possess? The concept of leadership in business context emerges from the leader’s ability to lead and manage. As such the same qualities that characterise a good manager also hold true in the case of a good leader but he must also be able to deliver on the basis of his own knowledge of business and experience.
A good leader is, therefore, one who is also intelligent, emphatic, has self-confidence, is open minded, is foresighted, possesses aptitude and a sense of responsibility and makes an impact on others by virtue of these qualities and personality.
Element # 4. Communication:
Communication is defined as exchange of information, facts, ideas and opinions in formal and non-formal manner. Communication is the foundation of all other management functions.
Communication is a two way process – voluntary or involuntary. In the process of transmission of information, facts, ideas and opinions, there takes place a type of contact between two or more persons, between the receiver and the sender. In business parlance, communication does not mean conveying of information alone, it also means knowledge of the subject. It is through communication that managers transform a static object into a dynamic one.
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Communication as a management function is continuous and the process involves following four important steps – the sender (one who wants to communicate); the message, something that is to be communicated; medium or symbol, the method and mode of communication; and the receiver. While all other living things also communicate, human beings have certain advantages in the above four major characteristics of communication.
The best commercial value of these characteristics lies in that they help to carry the very substance of directing function of the management to all levels. So we find that communication involves two parties, is pervasive at all levels, is a continuous ongoing process and moves in a circular order.
Importance of communication is manifested in the following ways – it facilitates planning, decision making and takes them round the organisation, helps establish internal and external relationships, facilitates coordination and helps in the process of motivation and morale boosting. It gives management’s purposive direction of mobility, establish priorities and helps manage change.
There are two broad types of communication:
i. Formal Communication, and
ii. Informal Communication.
i. Formal Communication:
Formal communication moves in three directions – upward, downward and horizontal or cross-communication. In the upward direction a subordinate communicates with his superior to report about various aspects or convey grievances or suggestions etc. In this manner the top level management is informed about all goings-on in the organisation.
In the downward direction, the superiors communicate to subordinates and convey messages, orders, decisions or demand explanations etc. In the horizontal direction communication is exchange of information between two similar or different levels which make coordination and cooperation easy.
Formal communication is no doubt a complex job but has many advantages like being systematic, source of communication is easy to locate, plays a supportive role and facilitates control, direction and other functions of the management.
This type of communication has also many disadvantages like following a rigid routine and moves slowly as it goes through several reporting channels in the scalar chain; is impersonal in nature; and often fearing adverse reactions the juniors or seniors often try to hold up certain type of information.
The informal communication takes place in the informal manner and does not follow any set routine. Called the ‘grape vine’, managements get to know what the employees talk between themselves as a result of social contacts and discern whether such a communication may have any kind of impact on the organisation. Its source however, often remain hidden or unknown.
Advantages:
Its advantages are that its helps employees to maintain good social contacts and cordial relations, its value lies in overcoming boredom and at times providing opportunities what the employees may not get in the normal course. Most organisations today promote informal communication as a means of maintaining a lively atmosphere amid increasing automation.
They also encourage the employees to speak up and report the issues freely through this medium of communication. This helps the managements to change attitudes as may emerge from such information.
Major limitations of this type of communication are that having no set form, distortions may occur at some level; the communication taking the shape of a rumor may cause serious damage to the organisation; the fear of leakage of confidential information haunts the management. Today a new revolution is taking place in the field of communication and a new branch called Management Information Systems (MIS) is fast emerging as discipline worthy of study, investigation and research and it is being used in all major fields of management.
Elements of Directing – Supervision, Motivation, Leadership and Communication
The process of directing function involves the following four elements:
i. Supervision:
Supervision is an important part of direction function of management. This refers to the guidance and control of subordinates in the performance of their tasks. Supervision assures that the work is being done in accordance with the plans and instructions. It helps the subordinates in solving their work-related problems. Effective supervision ensures greater output of high quality. It assists subordinates in the way their tasks are to be performed.
ii. Motivation:
Motivation stimulates individuals to act. A manger motivates subordinates to follow his instructions and work accordingly in the given direction. This is an act of inspiring the individuals to get the desired course of action. Motivation activates individuals’ action for the achievement of organizational goals. Higher motivation leads to job satisfaction of employees and makes them committed to the organization. It energizes individuals to work more. A successful manager can motivate employees properly to work harmoniously for the attainment of organizational goal.
iii. Leadership:
This is an important element of the directing process (i.e., to lead and guide the activities of subordinates). Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of subordinates to work willingly for the achievement of organizational goal. A leader guides and educates his subordinates the way of doing a given job. Managers, at all levels, act as leaders because they have subordinates who follow them. The success of an organization depends to a great extent on the quality of leadership. A successful leader can influence people to act willingly with confidence and zeal for mutual benefits.
iv. Communication:
This is an act of conveying information from one person to another. Communication refers to the exchange of ideas, feelings, emotions, and knowledge and information between two or more persons. Communication is an important element of the directing process. It facilitates directing function by providing proper interaction between managers and their subordinates. It improves superior-subordinates relationship by providing opportunities to employees to express their opinions and viewpoints.
A manager tells his subordinates what to do, how to do, and when to do. He issues orders and instructions to his subordinates regarding the work being performed by them. He guides and educates subordinates the way of performing a given job. This is achieved by the process of communication. The success of business depends upon the effectiveness of communication.
Elements of Directing – According to Haimann
Every manager has to issue orders and instructions to the employees, inspire them and guide them through the process of directing. According to Haimann, “Direction consists of the process of techniques utilised in issuing instructions and making certain that operations are carried out as originally planned.”
The elements of direction are as follows:
1. Issue of instructions and orders must be in simple and understandable language. They should be very clear and complete. Orders and instructions may be communicated orally or in writing. They should be such that they are in the capability of the subordinates to accomplish.
2. Better mutual understanding and team spirit can be achieved by proper communication with the subordinates. Speedy and proper communication, therefore, becomes an important element of direction.
3. Proper leadership has to be provided for influencing subordinates behaviour towards the attainment of company’s objectives.
4. Adequate supervision on subordinates has to be made to ensure that they use organisational resources effectively and efficiently.
5. Inspiring and motivating the subordinates is another element of direction because that only can assure the management about the fulfilment of its expectations.
6. Maintain discipline by punishing those whose performance is not good and rewarding those employees whose performance is good.
Elements of Directing – With Types, Functions and Importance
Element # 1. Leadership:
The function of direction involves the exercise of the functions of leadership. Leadership, according to Chester I. Bernard, “is the quality of the behaviour of individuals whereby they guide people or their activities in organised effort.” A leader has the function of interpreting the objectives of group effort and guiding or leading the group as a team towards the realisation of these objectives.
Managers at all levels act as leaders because they have subordinates (followers) whose efforts have to be canalised in a definite direction. As leaders, they have not only to show the way but also to head the group towards it. In doing this, the manager leading the whole or a part of the organisation has to set an example to his followers. He has to establish, both by conduct and expression, the community of interests which prompts people in a group to work together for certain given ends.
The importance of leadership for any group endeavour—whether business or nonbusiness—is too obvious to be overemphasized. The history of the world is full of instances that show how a small ill-equipped group is sometimes able to excel superior groups because of superior leadership, if for no other reason.
A good dynamic leader is a dynamo generating energy that charges and activities the whole group in such a way that near-miracles may be achieved. The history of business is also full of instances where good leaders led the business concerns to unprecedented peaks of success through their ability and wise policies. Psychologically, leadership fulfills an urge in people to be led and is, therefore, essential for providing the full measure of satisfaction to groups of human beings.
It is a modern leadership style in which the leader uses his charm to get the admiration of the followers. They are concerned about their people and their needs. Famous examples of charismatic leaders are Winston Churchill, Bill Clinton, Mother Teresa and Adolph Hitler.
This exists mostly in the corporate world. Leaders act more like initiators or facilitators rather than acting as dictators. They facilitate the ideas in the minds of the people to get their work done. A famous example of a participative leader is Donald Trump.
In this type of leadership the factors that affect the decision making process is the situation, the capability of the followers and the capability of the leader. Adaptability is the most important aspect in this type of leadership. A famous example of this leadership style is Dwigth Eisenhower.
There is a clear chain of command in this kind of leadership. The leader motivates his subordinates by various incentives and punishments. If they meet their targets they get those incentives. If they fail to meet the requirements, they will receive a corresponding punishment. Examples of transactional leaders are Joseph McCarthy and Charles de Gaulle.
According to their respective methods and approaches, leaders may be classified into three categories:
(i) Authoritarian or Autocratic Leader:
Such leaders are dictators who do not allow the subordinates to ‘reason why’. They give orders and assign tasks without taking the subordinates into confidence. Such leaders generally attract the hostility of the subordinates.
(ii) Democratic Leader:
This type of leader welcomes the participation of the group in the formulation of policies and decision-making. He attempts to clarify the goals so that the members of the group acquire the right perspective on their work. He is prepared to listen to his subordinates and is ready to implement suggestions after evaluating them in an objective manner. This type of leader can win the cooperation of his group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The members of the group generally show genuine regard for such leaders.
(iii) Laissez-Faire Leader:
This type of leader plays a rather passive role in social participation and leaves complete freedom for group and individual decisions. He acts as an umpire and coordinator of information believing that each person does his best when left free to work and think in his own way. This type of leadership is considered better than authoritarian leadership but may not be as effective as democratic leadership.
It might appear from the three major types of leader behaviour given above that there are just three types of leaders. However, following Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt, it will be more realistic to view the types of leaders as points on a continuum moving from a theoretical behaviour from one end to a democratic leader behaviour at the other end as illustrated in the figure given below-
It will be observed that most authoritarian leadership emphasises greater use of authority by the leader and lesser area of freedom for subordinates. On the other hand, more of democratic leadership means lesser use of authority by the leader and more freedom for subordinates.
The authoritarian leaders tend to be task-oriented while democratic leaders tend to be group-oriented. As this continuum is extended beyond democratic leadership it could lead to liassez-faire style. In this style the leader permits the members of the group to do whatever they want to do. In a sense it means the absence of formal leadership, and therefore, it is not shown in the continuum given above.
From the above classification of leadership styles, it is popularly inferred that the laissez- faire leadership and autocratic leadership are inferior to democratic leadership. However, research does not consistently support any one leadership style. It points to the need for a situational approach to leadership.
The factors in a leadership situation which determine the style of leadership suited to a situation are- (a) the personality traits of the individuals in the group, (b) the task characteristics, (c) task roles and (d) group characteristics. For example, where a task is simple and the leader is more capable than the subordinates, the leader may assume an authoritarian style to get things done.
On the other hand, if the subordinates are capable and individualistic and the task is complex and creative, it may be more advisable for the leader to adopt a democratic style, allowing greater freedom to his subordinates and using less of authority for task performance. In short, leadership is situational because the best style of leadership will depend upon the situation depending on the factors given above. This is referred to as the contingency model of leadership.
Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership:
The leaders who are able to motivate the followers to achieve the organizational goals and rewards the employees for good performance. They determine the goals for their subordinates and guide them towards achievements.
Leaders who inspire support and acceptance by instilling a sense of mission in followers, focusing on the developmental needs of the followers are known as Transactional Leaders. He provides individualized consideration, intellectual simulation and possesses charisma. He promotes follower’s intelligence and rationality and help them in careful problems solving.
A Transformational Leader possesses seven qualities such as- Trusting the followers, developing a sound vision, resilience, encouraging risk, being an expert, inviting dissent and simplifying things.
Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership:
Transactional Leadership:
1. It is traditional in nature.
2. He specifies what subordinates need to do to achieve goals and objectives.
3. He has a vision of his own and subordinates follow it.
4. He is approached for every problem.
5. He monitors and supervises his subordinates.
6. It’s basis is the personal traits of the leader.
Transformational Leadership:
1. It is ethical Leadership in nature.
2. He inspires followers through vision and goals.
3. He creates a shared vision with his subordinates.
4. He prepares the subordinates to solve the problem.
5. He inspires his people to do lateral thinking and innovative approach is used to go beyond the prescribed plan.
6. It is based on inter-relations between leaders and subordinates.
Functions and Techniques of Leadership:
In performing leadership functions, managers sometimes make attempts to change over from one leadership style to another with changes in the situation. This is rather difficult to do for most people and unless one learns to do it effectively, it may only make matters worse.
What really matters from the point of view of effective direction is that the leader provides the lead to the satisfaction of the led. This has been described as successful leadership by Bass. A manager must be very careful in his conduct in the presence of his subordinates. Every little act, gesture, expression and movement on his part is watched and interpreted by the subordinates in relation to their own work.
In exercising leadership functions in his formal position, a manager must avoid all kinds of false impression formation on the part of his subordinates. He must strive to “develop and maintain morale by evoking confidence and zeal—the elements of morale.”
The leader can win and maintain his subordinates’ confidence in him by establishing his superiority in knowledge and his ability to provide psychological support whenever needed. Koontz and O’Donnell suggest that he should make use of orientation which consists in providing the subordinate with the required information about his functions and its relationship with other functions, follow it up with training in managerial skills and continued supervision and provide his subordinates with job security (assuming that he is efficient).
The second major function of managerial leadership is to create and sustain enthusiasm for organisational goals and activities. This is more complicated than even the first function. The manager exercising leadership in motivating his subordinates towards organisational goals should, therefore, try to determine the conditions of factors in the organisational situation which prompt a subordinate to put in efforts beyond the acceptable minimum.
The function of creating enthusiasm for the enterprise goals can be performed by the use of two types of techniques:
(a) Inspiring Subordinates:
In trying to inspire his subordinates, the leader must show himself as a shrewd judge of men and things and should choose specific techniques for the purpose keeping in view all the relevant factors in the situation. Words have tremendous power as means of inspiration for men.
So have-the actions and gestures of leaders. The success of the superiors is, likewise, a source of inspiration and zeal for subordinates. In an enterprise, the success of superiors will be judged on the accomplishment of managerial objectives.
(b) Strengthening Personal Qualities:
The personal traits in leaders rated high by subordinates also serve to determine the extent to which the subordinates can be enthused about organisational objectives. Superior knowledge, strong character, high integrity levels, competence, sense of justice, maturity and emotional balance are some of the traits which subordinates in cultures like ours look for in their leaders. Even though leadership traits cannot be fixed for certain qualities on which society places a premium are necessary in leaders for creating zeal among subordinates.
Element # 2. Communication:
The process of communication consists in the transmission of ideas, information, directions, etc. with the object of achieving a perfect identity of mind with another person or organisation. While this process pervades all managerial functions—planning, organising, directing and controlling, it assumes particular importance in directing.
Breakdown of communication results in misunderstandings, creation of unfavourable attitudes, hostility and conflict. A leader can lead and manager can direct effectively only by establishing perfect understanding with the subordinates, equals and superiors in an organisation.
Some requirements of an effective programme of communication are:
(a) It must express the needs and character of the organisation—no programme suits all organisations,
(b) The management must develop and sustain a climate of trust and confidence,
(c) Each executive must consider communication an integral part of his job,
(d) Communication must be a continuing programme and not a brief one,
(e) Communication must be directed to a purpose and a person,
(f) Communication must move freely in both directions,
(g) Management must do everything possible to keep the supervisor continually informed and to tap his knowledge of what employees are doing and thinking,
(h) The lines of communication should be as clear and direct as possible.
All communication involves four basic elements:
(i) Sender – The one who initiates the contact for the purpose of passing information and understanding.
(ii) Receiver – The person who receives information and understanding from the sender.
(iii) Communication channels – The contacts among the organisational units and/or individuals.
(iv) Symbols – The words, gestures and other signs which are passed on by the sender while communicating with the receiver.
Communication may be classified on the basis of relationships involved as- (i) formal, and (ii) informal; on the basis of means used as (i) oral, and (ii) written and according to direction, etc., as (i) upward, (ii) downward, and (iii) horizontal.
1. On the basis of relationships:
i. Formal communication – is the transmission of information of direction in the formal organisation structure. When a manager directs his deputy to do something, it is an instance of formal communication.
ii. Informal communication- is the communication between members of a group not on the basis of formal relationships in the organisational structure but on the basis of informal relations and understanding among people at the same or different levels. The informal organisation and the related pattern of communication are quite often described as the ‘grapevine’.
2. On the basis of means used as:
i. Oral communication – implies the transmission of orders, messages or suggestions through the spoken word. It may be face to face or through an instrument like the telephone.
ii. Written communication- means the sending of the message through written word—say through a letter, circular, office memo, telegram, manual, bulletin, etc.
3. According to direction:
i. Downward communication – implies the flow of information or understanding from persons occupying higher position to those at lower levels. Orders, instructions, circulars, manuals, etc., belong to this category.
ii. Upward communication – is the flow of information from the subordinates to the superior positions. Reports, suggestions, complaints and grievances belong to this class.
iii. Horizontal communication – “takes place between, two subordinates of the same superior, two departmental managers or any two or more persons who are bound to one another by relationship of equality”.
Element # 3. Motivation:
By definition, management is concerned with the motivation of people for the realisation of organisational objectives. In fact, motivation may be regarded as an integral part of the process of direction. In directing his employees or subordinates, the manager has to try to create in his subordinates the willingness to pursue the goals of the organisation enthusiastically.
In trying to do so, the manager may be said to concern himself with motivation. The term motivation is derived from the word motive. Motives are expression of a person’s needs. A man may pursue certain physiological functions without motivation but nearly all conscious human behaviour is motivated or caused.
To take a simple illustration, growing hair requires no motivation but to get a hair-cut does. In order to motivate individuals to work for the goals and objectives of the organisation, the manager has to determine the motives or, in other words, the needs of the employees that call for satisfaction.
In fact, motivation could be described as the process whereby an individual is given the opportunity to satisfy his need by pursuing certain objectives. In other words, the process of motivation involves the creation and sustenance of the desire to work for certain goals among the people in an organisation.
An important fact that emerges from this description of the nature of motivation is that motivation is related to need-satisfaction. All motivated behaviour on the part of the human beings is directed towards the satisfaction or reduction of needs. Considering that every human being has a variety of needs, the eminent psychologist, Maslow remarked, “Man is a wanting animal!”
Man’s wants or needs may be broadly classified into two categories- (a) the primary needs, called the physiological needs, and (b) the secondary needs also described as social and psychological needs. Hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, etc., are all examples of the physiological need because these arise out of the basic physiology of life.
While these needs are even more important in their own right, the secondary needs are even more important and complicated. All these needs develop as one matures. In thinking of the problem of motivation, the manager must take into account the secondary or the social or psychological needs of the men in the organisation.
Secondary needs are also called secondary motives because they motivate a person towards a certain behaviour. Two important characteristics of human needs were highlighted by Maslow. In the first place, man’s needs depend completely on what he already has.
For this reason, satisfied needs do not motivate behaviour. If, for example, it is asserted that man lives by bread alone, it may be pointed out that this will be true, so long as man does not have enough bread. The moment he feels satisfied with what he has, bread ceases to interest him and loses its force as a factor of motivation.
From this, it may be asserted that the manager has always to be on the lookout for the unsatisfied needs of the individuals in the organisation so that he can take proper steps to motivate them by providing opportunities for the satisfaction of such needs. In the second place, human needs and wants are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. As soon as needs of a lower level are fulfilled, those of a higher level emerge and demand satisfaction.
Maslow classified human needs into five categories in order of priority:
1. Basic physiological needs.
2. Safety needs or Security needs.
3. Social needs.
4. Esteem needs or Ego needs
5. Need for self-realisation and accomplishment.
The physiological needs include the needs for food, drink, sex, rest, activity, etc. The safety needs include the need for protection from physical danger like fire, accident, etc., and for economic security (e.g., the need for protection against arbitrary dismissal from service). The social needs include the desire for love, affection and association with other people including acceptance by one’s work group.
The esteem needs include the desire for personal worth and dignity, strength, competence, achievement, independence and freedom. The need for self-realisation takes the form of the urge to put one’s potentialities to full use. It refers to doing and being what one can do or can be.
The important point about these needs is that they are arranged in the order in which they arise and a particular category of needs becomes dominant for a person only when the lower category or categories of needs are satisfied to a reasonable extent. This means that the need for security will become important only after one has satisfied the basic physiological needs to a considerable extent.
Likewise, when a man is assured of a reasonable degree of security on his job, his social needs will acquire importance for him. Of course, this classification is by no means watertight and the level at which a person will feel satisfied in respect to a particular need will vary from one individual to another, but the most important point that arises from these characteristics of human needs is that the manager must adopt an attitude of patient enquiry into the needs and wants of his subordinates.
Also in trying to get things done through others, he must recognise the fact that people devote themselves to the realisation of certain objectives only when they feel that this will help them in satisfying their most important unsatisfied needs. Traditionally, managers put faith in the concept of an economic man believing that more money will by itself motivate employees.
However, in a proper system of motivation the manager has to provide for the satisfaction of all kinds of secondary needs. Job security combined with social security may help him satisfy security needs. Techniques of proper promotion and delegating authority help him get satisfaction of self- development and self-esteem needs.
Inviting suggestions from people is likely to give them a sense of participation. Recognition of work through praise and promotion will also help satisfy the esteem needs, and, above all giving the workers a feeling of worthwhileness is important from the point of view of satisfying people’s needs for esteem and self-realisation.
The managerial function of motivation is concerned not merely with the direction of non- managers. What is even more important is that it must do something about the managers in the organisation.
Management and Motivation—Theory ‘X’ versus Theory ‘Y’:
Different styles of management have a different bearing on the motivation of man in the organisation. The style adopted by a manager in managing the motivation of his subordinates will basically be dependent upon his assumptions and ideas about human nature and human behaviour in the industrial organisation.
For example, if a manager holds the view that employees are lazy or indifferent, he may consider it necessary to drive, push, and curse them to get the work done. On the other hand, if he feels that employees will be responsive and involved in the work given to them, he may use more of persuasion.
Douglas McGregor has presented two opposite views of man in the organisation in the form of what he calls Theory ‘X’ and Theory ‘Y’. Theory ‘X’ represents the traditional view of human nature and emphasises the need for control and direction over man. On the contrary, Theory ‘Y’ indicates the individual and organisation both and highlights the need for improvising and utilising inner motivation.
The basic assumptions about human beings and their behaviour in work organisations according to both these theories are given below:
According to the traditional view of human behaviour underlying Taylor’s scientific management and others the following assumptions hold well about work behaviour of people-
i. A person has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
ii. Most people must be pressurised, controlled and directed by their superiors to get them to work towards organisational objectives.
iii. The average human being wishes to avoid responsibility and looks for security above all.
iv. The average person actually prefers to be directed to being left on his own.
The Theory Y which has been put forth by McGregor and has become the foundation of the behavioural science approach to management is based upon the following assumptions about human nature-
i. People do not hate work. It is as natural as rest or play.
ii. If the management can get the people committed to what they are doing, they can work by self-drive and will not need to be forced or threatened.
iii. People commit themselves to those objectives which promise them the satisfaction they want.
iv. Since the other needs of most of the people in work organizations are pretty well satisfied, the management can achieve better results through them by appealing to their ego and development needs.
v. The best condition for motivation is self-control and self-direction by people in pursuit of objective, mutually acceptable to the organisation and the worker.
Since Theory ‘X’ and Theory ‘Y’ represent diametrically opposite views of human nature, Theory ‘Y’ has been advanced to suggest that human beings combine a bit of both according to circumstances. If we relate the above theories to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs it may be said that Theory ‘X’ may be more applicable where a man is concerned with the lower level of needs. Once he has an adequate level of satisfaction of the basic physiological and safety needs, Theory TT may be used for making an appeal to a higher level needs.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory of Herzberg:
Frederick Herzberg of the Western Research University, Ohio, U.S.A. (presently at the University of Utah) made a valuable contribution to the development of a theory of work motivation by indicating to the industry the way to better performance through increased job satisfaction.
In his research, Herzberg asked people to recall what made them happy when they were last happy at work and what made them unhappy when they were dissatisfied. The study was conducted on a group of 200 Engineers and Accountants from eleven industries from the Pitsberg area in the U.S.A.
The studies made by Herzberg revealed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were not the faces of the same coin in the sense that the presence of a factor would make people happy while the absence of the same factor would make them equally unhappy. Instead, satisfaction and dissatisfaction could be same as two ends of a scale.
Some factors are closely connected with positive satisfaction, while some others with definite dissatisfaction. If the factors connected with satisfaction are missing or are low in strength, a person will not have high satisfaction necessarily. Similarly, if a factor connected to dissatisfaction is taken care of it will not automatically lead to high satisfaction.
According to Herzberg, the factors connected with satisfaction or motivation could be called motivators while the factors related to dissatisfaction could be called Hygiene Factors or Dissatisfies. He found that when people felt dissatisfied with their jobs, they were concerned about the context or the environment in which they work. On the other hand, when people felt good about their jobs, this was related to the content of the job or the work.
Hygiene Factors:
The factors connected with dissatisfaction are called hygiene factors by Herzberg because they primarily prevent dissatisfaction like hygiene which seeks to prevent sickness. These factors relate to the work environment or the job context.
In this category are included factors like the following:
1. Company policies and administration
2. Supervision
3. Working conditions
4. Interpersonal relations
5. Salary
6. Status, and
7. Security
Hygiene factors do not produce any growth in the workers’ output capacity. They can only prevent losses in worker’s performance due to work restriction. For this reason these factors are also called Maintenance Factors.
Motivators:
The motivators or the satisfiers are factors which have a positive power to satisfy and produce high performance. These are related to the job content, i.e., what a man does. These include achievement, recognition, challenging work, increased responsibility, growth and development.
From the point of view of management, the significance of Herzberg theory lies in the warning that merely removing the causes of dissatisfaction will not make people like what they are doing any better. More particularly, more pay cannot be the basis of long range satisfaction.
Better performance can come only when positive motivation is built through improvement in the job content by making it more interesting, challenging, responsible and worthwhile. The management can work on both fronts by reducing the dissatisfaction arising out of hygiene factors and building up the satisfaction from motivators.
In trying to motivate employees towards the accomplishment of enterprise objectives, the manager attempts to make work satisfying for people.
According to Mr. S.W. Gellerman, there are at least three good reasons why it should do so-
(a) It may lead to more profitable operation because motivation is always goal directed. Hence, the greater the motivation, the better will be the chance for the attainment of the higher level of productivity.
(b) It will be the best remedy for resistance to change, restriction of output and strikes. Satisfied workers are motivated to work for the enterprise goals and are, therefore, more receptive to any changes that the management wishes to introduce,
(c) The effective use of human resources is the central problem of management and motivation could well be regarded as the core of management. Without motivation, the workers may not put in their best and may seek the satisfaction of their needs outside the organisation.
According to Koontz and O’Donnell, there are four important requisites of a sound system of motivation:
(i) Productive:
A good system of motivation must be productive. This means that it should be able to induce the subordinates to work efficiently and effectively. It should be productive in the sense that the productivity of the employees should be maximised through it.
(ii) Competitive:
A sound motivation system must be competitive so that the cost of the system at the margin is not allowed to exceed its productivity at that point. In devising a scheme for motivating employees, this basic principle must be kept in mind. A business enterprise is established with the object of making profits through the efforts of satisfied employees.
(iii) Comprehensive:
A proper motivational system must be comprehensive. This means that the system must take care not only of the basic needs of the subordinates but must also meet the higher needs of employees. Also, the system must cover the people in the organisation at all levels.
(iv) Flexible:
A sound motivational system must be flexible. This means that, with changes in the situation and in the state of knowledge, the system should be suitably adjusted. The individual differences among people must be duly recognised and the system should be so devised that the individual character of each subordinate is taken into account.